Coffee and Conversation in Nakhon Pathom: A Complex Adaptive Systems Perspective on Discourse5/25/2016 This was my final capstone paper. I wrote this one to learn more deeply about the complex systems approach: a fascinating topic for theorizing and experimentation. A Negotiated Syllabus and Instructional Design in ELT: At a Primary School in Southern Thailand12/10/2015 Here is another short paper I wrote for a class called Systematic Design of Instruction. This paper is approached from both a theoretical and practical perspective on the subject of negotiated syllabi. I go into a bit of detail on my own experiences of implementing a negotiated syllabus when I was working at a school in Thailand. This is a short paper I wrote for my curriculum development course. I analyze one of my colleagues' reflective journal from an extended, reflective situation analysis. Here is one of the capstone papers that I wrote toward the completion of my BA degree in TESOL. It covers reflective teaching and action research theory. Abstract
Academics in many professions, from cultural anthropology to business, all apply Hofstede’s dimension of power distance to a range of intercultural issues. This study explores power distance as defined in Hofstede’s Cultures and Organizations: Software of The Mind, and applies these concepts to an analysis of cross-cultural relations and communication in Thailand. A particular focus on power distance is suggested as a means of understanding microsocial and macrosocial systems in Thailand. Conventions connected to power distance such as social interaction, education, business and politics, are among the institutions covered in this research. Other overlapping dimensions are also suggested as key features for understanding intercultural communication within the country. Hofstede’s Power Distance and InterculturalCommunication in Thailand Wouldn’t it be easy enough if the world’s cultures could be classified into strict dichotomies that represent equally contrasting elements of the eastern and western hemispheres? It appears as though some would make sense of the world in this way. A line would be drawn from America to China, and it would be assumed that an equal difference of every dimension would be found as a continuum from one side to the next. On the other hand, a more multidimensional analysis would destroy these presumptions. Not only can differences be found between East Asia’s collectivism and The United States’ individualism, but between North America and South America, such as Canada and Guatemala, and even within Europe itself, such as Italy and Greece (Hofstede, 1997). The UK’s masculine values can be contrasted with Scandinavia’s femininity (84). Hong Kong’s people are far more comfortable with unpredictability than South Korean society (113), and in Thailand; less powerful people expect powerful members of the society to take care of important matters of business and politics, while the dynamic is amplified in Malaysia, but significantly toned down in the more egalitarian oriented Germany (26). Geert Hofstede refers to this dimension of culture as power distance. Power distance is defined as “the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally” (28). Among Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture, the category of power distance seems to show the most broadly contrasting elements that arise out of cross-cultural relations in Thailand. Not only do these differences affect every day interactions between Thai people, expats and others visiting the country, but they also say a lot about Thailand’s economic and political landscape. Historical and Causal Factors Moreover, Thailand’s position as a high power distance society may be attributed to a long line of thought that stretches back to the third century B.C. when Buddhism saw its beginnings in the country (Kusalasaya, 2006). In Buddhist families, seeking the help of another who is more spiritually advanced, such as a senior monk, is a given. Most Thai families keep photos and deities of senior monks who are received as their collective guru. This alone reinforces power distance in a way that is seen in the most positive light in Thai society. In Buddhist thought, the concept of karma is defined by a law of cause and effect within samsara: the endless cycle of birth and death. Every action has consequences of varying degrees, and everyone will live, die and be born again into another life that reflects the karma of one’s past life. Accordingly, one’s role in society would also be determined by their past karma. Maintaining harmony in society would depend upon people of varying classes accepting their roles as an inheritance of past karma. More powerful people would be obligated to be mediators who take care of those who are less powerful. This is a slightly more horizontal version of the Confucian social dynamics in Korea, Japan and China, all of which are major sources of investment and tourism in Thailand (Nisbett, 2003) (Department of Tourism, 2014) (Thailand Board of Investment, 2014). Of course, it would be mere speculation to suppose that this aspect of thought, on its own, would legitimize power distance to the degree that it is accepted in Thai society. Other contributing factors might include the implications of socioeconomic status, age and generation differences, ecology, traditional conventions, educational practices, and a number of others, none of which should be seen from a deterministic viewpoint. Power Distance and Intercultural Communication in Thailand Social conventions that arise from these values and perceptions leave many foreigners in Thailand bewildered in cross-cultural interactions. People of a higher social status, such as business leaders, are expected to live up to their roles (Pimpa, 2012). Relatively wealthy foreigners who intend to be polite by acting in a way that appears inclusive by their own country’s standards will often be seen as lacking confidence. Under these circumstances, communication is likely to be very awkward. Subordinates’ dependency on those of higher status will only exist as long as all of the gears are turning. For example, when eating dinner at a restaurant, higher earners would normally be expected to pay the bill for their group. In Thai language, this is considered as an act of nam jai (น้ำใจ). This would be expected by others as a token of appreciation, and as an action of maintaining harmony in the Buddhist tradition of charitable generosity. Otherwise, counterdependency develops when one party feels slighted. This is characteristic of in-group dynamics in Thailand, and some overlapping may be observed in these circumstances as shifting from power distance to collectivism, and vice versa. On a mass scale, counterdependency and contrasts between Thailand’s in-group and out-group dynamics may be seen in large protest movements when one side feels as though they aren’t getting what they deserve (BBC, 2014). Hofstede states that political grievances aren’t addressed through legal systems or elections in high power distance countries (38). Mass scale discrepancies result in one party’s attempt to diminish the power of the other through force, rather than law. Both family and context are more important in the legal system, which is one that is again, similar to Confucian styles of law, rather than republican forms of government that adhere strictly to written rules and codes. Similar business operations may be observed in the Thai workplace. An objective or principled approach will likely be seen as one that is impractical due to the norms of interpersonal dealings. Out-group associations are generally much further apart in most Asian countries, while in-groups are relatively closer when compared to many western countries (Nisbett, 2003). Therefore, even families wielding power aren’t expected to warm up to those outside their circle of close friends and acquaintances. To outsiders, this aspect of society could appear nepotistic. Inside Thailand, the people who make up these families’ out-group circles might even side with the outsider’s observances. Power distance also has an enormous influence within educational institutions in Thailand. Hierarchies between teachers and students, as well as new teachers and senior teachers, shape the norms of Thai educational pedagogy. Again, this is a system based on relationships, rather than principle. In 1999, a successful initiative to create standards for student-centered learning in Thai schools turned out to be unsuccessful in its application (Thamraksa, 2003). Educational leadership in schools faced confusion as to how teachers would be trained, and many teachers even felt threatened at the prospect that their authority might be undermined. Many students who are used to passive learning and assuming the role of subordinate in the classroom also felt as though they were taking on a new role unnecessarily. Concepts of tiered activities in student-centered classrooms might have been able to clear up this issue from the point of view of students. In facilitating these activities, students may still take on specifically defined roles according to Thai cultural contexts. However, high power distance is more deeply rooted in the elder generations. So, it is probable that senior educators and administrators will maintain a reflection of high power distance in Thailand’s schools for some time to come. Overlapping Cultural Dimensions in Thailand There are also overlapping characteristics in Thai conventions that could be attributed to two or more categories. For example, the legal practice of reenacting crimes, and publicly questioning those who have been convicted of serious offenses is seen as bizarre by many foreigners (Rojanaphruk, 2013). This may stem from the aspect of Buddhist philosophy promoting equanimity: in this case, among observers who have been affected by shocking circumstances. This has roots in a complex kind of collectivism that sees serious occurrences in the context of ongoing change between all of those involved in any side of the matter. In Thailand, it would be perceived as isolating, and neglectful to leave families alone after they have been affected by a serious crime. Thailand is also similar to the Scandinavian countries in terms of valuing femininity highly. So any punishment involving retribution would come second to a tender sense of empathy for families, and the construction of a particular closure that helps everyone make sense of the entire scenario. However, paternalistic assertiveness may coexist with Thailand’s feminine values. Thus, power distance is likely to remain high for generations. It’s also important to remember that Thailand is a high context society where indirect communication and holistic thinking prevail. A dialectic style will get foreign visitors further than a purely logical style of communication. An awareness of cross-cultural perceptions will benefit both Thais and foreigners in communication, whether they are holistic and contextual, or analytical and fragmentary. Values of femininity over masculinity, collectivism over individualism, cyclical perceptions of time (Lewis, 2014), and higher power distance play an integral part in the social dynamics of Thai society. Because Thailand is in constant contact with a multicultural population, it should be suggested that intercultural competence involves a mutual understanding of the influences that contribute to identity, among all people in the country, from any background. These influences could be cultural, subcultural and even countercultural. Power distance is among one of many cultural dimensions that demand to be understood in order to communicate peacefully across cultures. It is not a characteristic that is exclusive to Asian countries… France is also high on the scale for reasons pertaining to individualistic pursuits (26). On the other hand, a total integration of cultural values may not be realistic due to fears of cultural appropriation and deep rooted characteristics of thought. However, cultural convergence could be reconceptualized in simpler terms. Confusion in cross-cultural interactions is often humorous, and in this context; laughing and smiling are universal forms of communication. References BBC. (2014). Thailand profile- timeline. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15641745 Department of Tourism. (2014). Visitor statistics of 2014. Retrieved from www.tourism.go.th/home/details/11/221/23044. Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind: Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival. 26, 28, 38, 84, 113. Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation. University of Limbuurg at Maastricht. The Netherlands. McGraw Hill. Lewis, R. (2014). How different cultures understand time. para. 16-18. Business Insider. Retrieved from: http://www.businessinsider.com/how-different-cultures-understand-time-2014-5. Kusalasaya, K. (2005). Buddhism in Thailand: Its past and its present. 5. Wheel. 85. Buddhist Publication Society. Kandy, Sri Lanka. Nisbett, R. (2003). Geography of thought: How asians and westerners think differently and why. 52. New York. The Free Press. Pimpa, N. (2012). Amazing Thailand: Organizational culture in the Thai public sector. 37. International Business Research. Vol. 5. No. 11. School of Management, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. Canadian Center of Science and Education. DOI: 10.5539/ibr.v5n11p35. Rojanaphruk, P. (2013). Acting out crimes is necessary: police. The Nation. Retrieved from nationmultimedia.com/national/Acting-out-crime-is-necessary-police-30209660.html Thailand Board of Investment. (2014). Foreign direct investment: Annual statistics. Retrieved from www.boi.ho.th Thamraksa, C. (2003). Student centered learning: Demystifying the myth. Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University. Abstract
Emergentism is a philosophical idea that may be found in more recent theories of language acquisition. This study explores emergentist models of language acquisition theory, as well as their relation to pedagogy and language interventions. Contrasting theories are also considered, along with common criticisms. In addition, the literature review describes types of emergentism in language acquisition. The findings suggest limitations of the connectionist models used in emergentist research. Despite these limits, the reasoning behind emergentism is found to be more comprehensive than past theories. Applying Emergentism in Language Development Contexts For decades, the field of second language acquisition has been dominated by strictly innatist approaches that measure learning in isolation from environmental and social circumstances. Ask any language teacher what they know about language acquisition, and you’re likely to hear something about Steve Krashen’s Input Hypothesis or his “Acquisition-Learning Distinction” (1982). It seems easy enough to stop there, believing any other relevant theory to be little more than pedantry. Krashen deserves a lot of credit for pioneering teaching methods that are much more effective than those of the past. His theories do have a lot of ground to stand on, and there’s a mountain of evidence to back up the need for comprehensible input in language learning. However, developments in applied linguistics might offer much more insight into new theories about how cognition and memory work together during language learning. Furthermore, these developments may attend to pertinent inquiries, such as whether external stimuli is a necessary and ongoing reminder of anything one has learned. Is it an activator of new knowledge? Lastly, is a specific frequency of activation required for acquisition to occur? There are a few who address these questions from the emergentist point of view in applied linguistics and psychology. These theories could be just that: an alternative point of view… or they could offer new explanations as to how language is acquired. Emergentism Defined The origin of emergentism is likely to be found in works of philosophy. The term refers to an adherence to emergence: a process whereby larger constructs arise out of associations between smaller phenomena that do not exhibit the characteristics of those constructs on their own. This is well illustrated by psychologist Brian MacWhinney, who may be credited with developing the first concepts of emergentism in language acquisition: There is no gene in the bee that codes for hexagonality in the honeycomb, nor any overt communication regarding the shaping of the cells of the honeycomb. Rather, this hexagonal form is an emergent consequence of the application of packing rules to a collection of honey balls of roughly the same size. (2002, p. 3). This vivid ecological description has multidisciplinary implications that stretch from the field of biology, to applied linguistics. Emergentism can more generally be defined as an “approach to cognition that stresses the interaction between organism and environment (Gregg, 2004).” In a second language context, this would refer to learners realizing language as it is used, or as it emerges between themselves and others, or their surroundings. Language is activated when physical stimuli or mental mappings provide for contextualization and/or comprehension. This is both an internal and external process, often happening simultaneously. Thus, emergentism could contain elements of innatist, as well as interactionist theories. Moreover, this process may refer to the construction of creative uses of language. Emergentism may be seen as a type of constructivism, but it is not synonymous with the term, despite some confusion surrounding the two concepts (Daftarifard, Alemi & Lavasani, 2011). There are two emergentist camps in second language acquisition theory that may be contrasted according to focus. One studies mapping of language input and usage, such as analyses of cues that may lead to interpretation of collocations, animacy, inflection and word order. The other considers complex cognitive operations, such as working memory (O’Grady, Miseon & Hye-Young, 2009). In this approach, a “processor” would interpret experiences, and their connection to linguistic knowledge (6). Instead of a “language acquisition device” that is prewired to receive and store input (Bowers, 2005), the processor is a dynamic mediator of internal and external experiences, as well as an initiator of pragmatics, and constructor of expression. Both theories hypothesize on pattern recognition of either linguistic or non-linguistic phenomena, and both describe the initial features of language as non-linguistic before linguistic properties emerge. Input based theories study frequency, while using connectionist models to collect data on acquired language. The processor-based approach might take a closer look at mediation of semiotic relationships. Although the focus is slightly different; neither theory opposes the other, and both are mutually complementary. Connectionist Models and Criticisms Brain imaging techniques are used in connectionist models to test neural links. The results normally show stronger or weaker relationships, depending on the level of activation (Nygren, 2011). This supports the emergentist idea that language is a property of associations. It’s also similar to the idea of working memory, which is often described in the emergentist framework as a limiting factor in language acquisition. Working memory entails information being held in the brain temporarily, which in turn, makes activation necessary for recall, or other complex cognitive operations (Baddeley, 1992). John Doolittle described this in practical terms at a TED convention: “We need to process what’s going on the moment it happens, not ten minutes later, not a week later, at the moment (Doolittle, 2013).” Due to the nature of working memory, it is necessary to elaborate further on frequency of input as it relates to recall. There is evidence that output is often quick to emerge with equal amounts and qualities of input (Khatib & Mehrgan, 2013). Production would reinforce acquisition in a continuous and ongoing process of recycling language use. Also, it would lower the burden on working memory as varying neural algorithms stay engaged with stimuli. Thus, language emerges as a natural product of combined experiences, and the frequency of input needed for acquisition varies from case to case. In measuring acquired language, the connectionist models used to validate emergentism do have their limits. Brain imaging techniques are used to study relationships between the operations of first and second layer neurons, and these tend to miss a lot of information in terms of the unknown (Poll, 2011). Since the brain’s complexity isn’t fully understood; the language interventions in these models are part speculative. For instance, other researchers state that the input provided in these tests might introduce grammar that is already innate to humans (Pinker & Jackendorf, 2009; as cited in Poll, 2011). However, the same style of inductive reasoning, and the guarded quality of this argument are broad. Not only does the argument discount emergentism, but any theory that would refer to brain research. Therefore, the relative accuracy of connectionist models still makes a strong case in favor of emergentism over a priori theories. Despite the lack of solid evidence in these arguments, some have criticized emergentism by citing empirical information, namely that of Chomsky’s Poverty of the Stimulus, which refers to the relatively small amounts of input that children receive in contrast to their performance in a given language (as cited in Gregg, 2004). Although this criticism is posed as antithetical, it does not take conceptual differences into account within the emergentist paradigm. Because the defining characteristics of language are not addressed as comprised of constructed elements; using this particular concept to criticize emergentism is fallacious. In emergentist theory, language is constructed by several sources of input and internal associations working together. Therefore, Poverty of the Stimulus would be a better argument for this concept than its own nativist philosophy. Pedagogy, Interventions and Language Development An application of emergentism may involve encouraging creative uses of language on the part of L2 learners. In the social-constructivist fashion, learners may not only be motivated to interpret input, but they are active participants in creating new uses of language to reflect meaning from their own perspectives. A smaller amount of input would be sufficient to provide opportunities for learners to engage in a type of negotiated interaction in which new uses of language are coconstructed. This type of construction during interaction could even define language acquisition. Social circumstances already demand intelligibility, so these creative uses of language are likely to unfold accordingly. In addition, language development is encouraged with a forward-thinking pedagogy that embraces new uses, from varying expressions that reflect specific sociocultural contexts, to language produced by individuals as a property of mediation. One example of this type of pedagogy can be found in Scott Thornbury and Luke Meddings’ suggestions in “Teaching Unplugged,” in which emergent language is elicited as a major portion of content in lesson and curriculum development (2009). Emergentist interventions are shown to be beneficial in the acquisition of common, morphosyntactic patterns, as well as assisting in the accuracy of meaning through reduction of approximations (Poll, 2011). The latter is evidence of MacWhinney’s Competition Model, which emphasizes the importance of the “reliability and availability” of cues in language comprehension (2002). This could occur in learning environments where language is scaffolded, or as meaning is negotiated between peers. As learners interact, spontaneous cognitive processes reflect dialogue between learners, and closure becomes unnecessary because it is the process of engaging in this reduction that promotes fluency, not limited answers. It appears that the drawbacks of emergentism are no more evident than those of other theories of language acquisition. Evidence will back reasoning in any legitimate theory, and the debate between nativism, interactionism and emergentism will continue. Emergentism on its own is an idea that is in development. Like other theories, further models of testing will be necessary to present findings that are more convincing to those looking for hard science. The connectionist models that are currently used may become insufficient in the future, but this is something that any serious linguist or psychologist would welcome with an open mind. At the moment, these theories offer a unique perspective, and a new way of thinking about language development that is potentially the most accurate with regard to recognizing the complexity of cognition. Therefore, emergentism should be considered very seriously if the field of applied linguistics intends to keep up with information beyond the tired droning of nature versus nurture. References Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9759336. Bowers, J. (2005). Language acquisition device. In N. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human development. (pp. 767-768). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412952484.n371. Daftarifard, P., Alemi, M. & Lavasani, M. (2011). Constructivism, connectionism and emergentism in SLA: Commonalities and differences. Islamic Azad University. Sharif University of Technology. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/10811486/Constructivism_Connectionism_and_Emergentism_in_SLA_Communalities_and_Differences. Doolittle, P. (2013). How your “working memory” makes sense of the world. TED Conferences. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/peter_doolittle_how_your_working_memory_makes_sense_of_the_world#. Gregg, K (2004). The state of emergentism in second language language acquisition. Second Language Research. 19. 2. Momoyama Gakuyin University. doi: 10.1191/0267658303sr213oa. Khatib, M. & Mehrgan, K. (2013). Nativist emergentism in second language acquisition. 133. Advances in English Linguistics. Vol. 2. No. 2. Alameh Tabataba‘i University. Tehran, Iran. Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. 10, 20. University of Southern California. Pergamom Press. MacWhinney, B. (2002). Language emergence: Five timeframes and three illustrations. 3. Burmeister, P., Piske, T., and Rohde, A. (Eds.). An integrated view of language development. 17-42. Trier, Germany: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag. MacWhinney, B. (2002). The competition model: The input, the context, and the brain. 1. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction. 69-90. New York. Cambridge University Press. Meddings, L. & Thornbury, S. (2009). Teaching Unplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching. Peaslake, UK: Delta. Nygren, T. I. (2011). Language acquisition, emergentism, and the brain-changing norms of unilateral interventionism. TCNJ Journal of Student Scholarship. O’Grady, W. Miseon, L., Hye-Young, K. (2009). Emergentism and second language acquisition. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Emerald Press. Pinker, S. & Jackendoff, R. (2009). The reality of a universal language faculty. Behavior and Brain Sciences. 32: 465–466. Poll, G. H. (2011). Increasing the Odds: Applying Emergentist Theory in Language Intervention. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42(4), 580–591. doi: 10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0041). Abstract
The word emergent often appears in a number of books, articles, and professional development materials in areas of early childhood development. In this research, the relevance of emergent lessons in English language classrooms is explored as a method of realizing communicative language teaching. Research in language acquisition is documented along with examples of current and historical trends in emergent language classrooms. The findings suggest that when ethical issues in cross-cultural, English language learning environments are coupled with research, the reasoning behind applications of emergent language pedagogy as a method becomes comprehensive and beneficial. The Emergent Classroom and English Language Development The emergent curriculum has long been a staple of many trends in early childhood education, but exactly how relevant are its ideas to English language development? In an era of globalization, the effects of language contact are becoming more evident as English itself is used as an additional means of communication. It is stated that current trends in English language teaching reflect a post-method era (Brown, 2002), but is it the case that methods are merely teachers’ own creations that need revision according to local contexts? Intelligibility is a key word in communicative language teaching, so the concept of language learning as constructivist could compliment a respect for culture and identity. For this reason, communicative language lessons might be better facilitated with a focus on constructive uses of language, while a communicative approach to teaching might be better realized through an emergent curriculum. Key features and techniques in an emergent lesson might include: provocation, ongoing research through anecdotal documentation, reflective teaching, an embrace of serendipity, and a constructivist philosophy. Everyone and everything in a given environment, including children, teachers, and the physical space itself, are all involved in “co-constructing” the curriculum (Jones, 2012). An application of these ideas and concepts may be seen in schools inspired by the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. In these schools, young learners may choose a number of tasks that encourage creative thinking and interactions with their peers, such as painting a canvas as an entire class. In an activity such as this, the teacher would not pressure learners to conform to any idea of a specific outcome. Ideas and feelings tend to emerge from students themselves after they are provoked with a variety of models, examples and materials, or when they are simply inspired by their own curiosity at any given moment. A similar approach to facilitating language learning has been theorized by linguists Scott Thornbury and Luke Meddings in their book “Teaching Unplugged” (2009). To elaborate on Thornbury’s “A Dogma for EFL,” ten principles are outlined as a basis for communicative language classrooms (2000). In addition to language emergence, other principles most relevant to this research include: “interactivity, dialogic processes, and relevance” of materials according to local contexts. Thornbury states that his "Dogme of ELT" is a critical pedagogy, and he encourages teachers to be skeptical of materials from outside the local context, including most textbooks. This would follow a tradition handed down from Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which posits that learners are already equipped with the knowledge to create, while the teacher avoids the “banking model” of dumping information on students as though they are “receptacles” (1970). In practice, Dogme might be closer to other historical figures’ work such as Sylvia Ashton-Warner. Her methods of teaching Maori children in New Zealand were always reflective, and she considered language and literacy to a much larger extent (as cited in Middleton, 2009). Emergent Activities It is stated that, after language emerges during Dogme style lessons, teachers should engage students with this material to reinforce learning (Sasidharan, 2014). Like Reggio Emilia, Dogme emphasizes documentation of emergent language or ideas in the moment of interaction, after a provocation. These anecdotal accounts provide for an immediate reflection of ongoing research, and the potential for reformulation. In Dogme, reformulation might entail using documented language from class interactions in order to facilitate short consciousness raising activities. Thornbury relates these activities to a term in ecology called “affordances”(2012). Affordance is a complex idea that categorizes relations between the environment and an organism that affords the chance to carry out an action. A teacher could consider affordances by facilitating casual, peer conversations about any reasonable topic. Afterward, the teacher might document or take note of a particular peer’s statement about these interactions. This statement would be reformulated using a mutually intelligible language, potentially involving small grammatical or lexical changes. At this point, the teacher could provoke or elicit creative uses of the language in short segments. The reformulated statement could be written on any locally available resource (be it a computer, whiteboard, chalkboard, brick wall or anything for that matter), making it visible to learners, and inductively highlighting any differences in linguistic features. It’s important to note that, before any of these activities, the teacher’s role in providing input changes by ignoring typical PPP (presentation, practice, production) structures, and turning the class into one that promotes interaction from the very beginning. In this case, the only teacher input needed from the beginning is a linguistic provocation. Afterward, learners are free to interact about the topic or language in any way that is most comfortable to them in that moment. Theoretical Basis Ideas pertaining to emergent (language) learning might be found as far back as Vygotsky’s theories of social constructivism: For Vygotsky, give-and-take between child language learners and their interlocutors within a specific sociocultural environment forms the basis for the development of cognition, including memory, logic, will and concept formation. (as cited in Thomas, 2013). Of course, this pertains to acquisition of first languages, and educational concepts that consider a broader range of influence in human development. These ideas should not be forgotten in second language learning due to the complimentary effects of normal human experiences in meaningful learning environments. Some examples of this dynamic may be found in classrooms using content based approaches, or carried out within immersion programs. Michael Long’s interaction hypothesis in second language acquisition is very similar to Vygotsky’s social constructivism (1996). In Long’s view, negotiation of meaning and the linguistic environment are important in the process of second language acquisition. It may also be assumed that this type of peer interaction, involving the use of checks such as comprehension and clarification, brings learners closer to a particular intercultural understanding as new ideas emerge alongside the language that may be used to express them. Though, from a language emergence point of view, acquisition is not the primary concern of the teacher, nor is a focus on providing copious amounts of input. The teacher and students learn from one another, as well as the ongoing dynamic. Thus, a continuous engagement with educational stimuli reminds learnersof the uses of language and its complimentary ideas. Cognitive psychologists refer to this sort of mental processing in terms of “working memory,” in which “activation and maintenance” of information is considered (Barrouillet & Camos, 2007). With that in mind, a teacher might assume a method that reflects the reciprocity of learning in that moment and place. Additionally, there are linguists whose primary theoretical focus is language acquisition with an emergentist bent. Emergentism suggests that language complexity should be seen from the perspective of non-linguistic interactions, while its theories are broken into two camps: one which centers around the implications of language input, and another “processor based approach” that considers the limitations of working memory (O’Grady, William, Lee & Hye-Young, 2009). These theories are compatible with emergent language pedagogy, and they provide solid reasoning for the potential effectiveness of teaching strategies such as those found in Dogme. Materials Development in Emergent Language Classrooms Meddling and Thornbury’s Dogme is often criticized for being anti-technology and anti-course book. However, much of the “materials light” suggestions in Dogme come from a socio-political perspective that is described as more “pro-poor” than anti-technology (Ghazal & Singh, 2014). Also, it’s intended to be compatible with classrooms in large sections of the world that lack access to technology and resources, such as course books that are often out of the price range of so many of the most motivated learners. Even in learning environments where resources and technology are plentiful, it may prove useful in bringing an element of humanity back to the classroom. After all, human interaction is arguably the most important reason for learning English language. Furthermore, many of the same principles may be applied to effectively draw out emerging language while using technology and without being too idealistic about the reasons for doing so. Besides, aversions to course books and technology aren’t prerequisites for realizing one’s own method of language facilitation, nor is every principle of Dogme an essential component in facilitating emergent language. Methods of emergent language pedagogy problematize conceptualizations of authentic materials by supposing the question: To whom is a material authentic? When an ‘authentic’ material from one culture is used in another, then that material may stand a chance of having a very inauthentic and unfamiliar feel. For example, recordings, newspapers and realia from a teacher’s community could be perceived as so foreign as to be strictly pedagogical in the local context. The language may suppress interaction by forcing learners to commit to phonetic and phonological analyses of received pronunciation. By the same token, pragmatic checks may be limited to analyzing expressions that are based on conventions of native speaking communities. The most authenticity in language comes out of its meaningful and constructive use. So, familiar ideas in local settings that are expressed through emergent language could be seen as the most authentic materials. This isn’t to say that emergent language may not be facilitated with pedagogical materials. Depending on various reasons for learner motivation, pedagogical materials may prove beneficial. For example, an interest in foreign culture, or international business involving intercultural dialogue may demand the use of pedagogical materials in an emergent environment. The Case for ELD Through Emergent Methodology A strong case for emergent methodology in language classrooms is made by coupling research in language acquisition with the ethical implications of communicative language teaching. Practical utility of language use, a respect for identity and culture, and a solid pedagogical framework could be found in many emergent language classrooms. English language development, intercultural exchange, and creative expression are only a few benefits that should arise from the affordances in each classroom application. Finally, for emergent methods to set the stage for a model of global communication, English language teachers should be aware of the extent to which trust is the key to facilitation. References Barouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2007). The time-based resource-sharing model of working memory. In N. Osaka, R. H. Logie, & M. D’Esposito (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of working memory (pp. 59–80). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brown, D. (2002). English language teaching in the post-method era: Toward better diagnosis, treatment, and assessment. Methodology in Language Teaching: An anthology of current practice. Richards, J. C. & Renandya, W. A. (Ed.). Cambridge University Press. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667190.003. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. 71. The Continuum International Publishing Group. New York, NY. Ghazal, S. & Singh, S. (2014). Teaching unplugged: Applications of Dogme ELT in India. International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies. Vol 2. Issue 1. 141 Indian Institute of Technology. School of Humanities and Social Sciences. Patna, India. Retrieved from http://www. eltsjournal.org. Jones, E. (2012). The emergence of emergent curriculum. Young Children. 67. National Association for the Education of Young Children. Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. Ritchie, W. C. & Bhatia, T. K. (Eds.). Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. 413-68. Academic Press. Meddings, L. & Thornbury, S. (2009). Teaching Unplugged: Dogme in English Language Teaching. Peaslake UK: Delta. Middleton, S. (2009). 3: Sylvia’s place: Ashton Warner as New Zealand education theorist. The Kiss and the Ghost: Sylvia Ashton-Warner. 35-49. Sense Publishers. Sasidharan, P. R. (2014). DOGME ELT: A method for enhancing conversational communication among engineering students. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. Jerusalem College of Engineering. Chennai, India. Thomas, M. (2013). History of the study of second language acquisition. The Cambridge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Herschensohn, J. & Young-Scholten, M. (Ed.). Cambridge University Press. Thornbury, S. (2012). A is for affordance. An A-Z of ELT: Scott Thornbury’s Blog. Taken from https://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/2012/01/01/a-is-for-affordance/. Thornbury, S. (2000). A dogma for EFL: Scott Thornbury takes a vow of chastity. IATEFL. 153. International House. Barcelona, Spain. Taken from http://www.scottthornbury.com/articles.html. |
AuthorMichael Edwards is an English Language Teacher from the U.S. He has recently completed his coursework for a BA in TESOL at Thongsook College International Programs. Feel free to ask questions, make suggestions, or offer constructive criticism. Archives
May 2016
Categories |